The Definition and Purpose of Political Institutions

The Definition and Purpose of Political Institutions Political institutions are the organizations in a government which create, enforce, and apply laws. They often mediate conflict, make (governmental) policy on the economy and social systems, and otherwise provide representation for the population. In general, democratic political regimes are divided into two types: presidential (headed by a president) and parliamentary (headed by a parliament). Legislatures built to support the regimes are unicameral (only one house) or bicameral (two houses- for example, a senate and a house of representatives or a house of commons and a house of lords). Party systems can be two-party or multiparty, the parties can be strong or weak depending on their level of internal cohesion. The political institutions are those bodies- parties, legislatures, and heads of state- which make up the whole mechanism of modern governments. Parties, Trade Unions, and Courts In addition, political institutions include political party organizations, trade unions, and the (legal) courts. The term Political Institutions may also refer to the recognized structure of rules and principles within which the above organizations operate, including such concepts as the right to vote, a responsible government, and accountability. Political Institutions, in Brief Political institutions and systems have a direct impact on the business environment and activities of a country. For example, a political system that is straightforward and evolving when it comes to political participation of the people and laser-focused on the well-being of its citizens contributes to positive economic growth in its region. Every society must have a type of political system so it may allocate resources and ongoing procedures appropriately. Along with the same concept, a political institution sets the rules in which an orderly society obeys and ultimately decides and administers the laws for those that do not obey appropriately. Types of Political Systems The political system consists of both politics and government and involves the law, economy, culture and additional social concepts. The most popular political systems that we know of around the world can be reduced to a few simple core concepts. Many additional types of political systems are similar in idea or root, but most tend to surround concepts of: Democracy: A system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of a state, typically through elected representatives.Republic: A state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives, and which has an elected or nominated president rather than a monarch.Monarchy:Â  A form of government in which one person reigns, typically a king or a queen. The authority, also known as a crown, is typically inherited.Communism:Â  A system of government in which the state plans and controls the economy. Often, an authoritarian party holds power and state controls are imposed.Dictatorship: A form of government where one person makes the main rules and decisions with absolute power, disregarding input from others. The Function of a Political System In 1960, Almond and Coleman gathered three core functions of a political system which include:Â   To maintain the integration of society by determining norms.To adapt and change elements of social, economic, and religious systems necessary for achieving collective (political) goals.To protect the integrity of the political system from outside threats. In modern day society in the United States, for example, the main function of the two core political parties is seen as a way to represent interest groups and constituents and to create policies while minimizing choices. Overall, the idea is to make legislative processes easier for people to understand and engage with. Political Stability and Veto Players Every government seeks stability, and, without institutions, a democratic political system simply cannot work. Systems need rules to be able to select political actors (the nomination process). The leaders must have fundamental skills about how the political institutions work and there must be rules about how authoritative decisions are made. The institutions constrain political actors by punishing deviations from institutionally prescribed behaviors and rewarding appropriate behavior. Institutions can resolve collection action dilemmas- for example, all governments have a collective interest in reducing carbon emissions, but for individual actors, making a choice for the greater good makes no good sense from an economic standpoint. So, it must be up to the federal government to establish enforceable sanctions. But the main purpose of a political institution is to create and maintain stability. That purpose is made viable by what American political scientist George Tsebelis calls veto players. Tsebelis argues that the number of veto players- people who must agree on a change before it can go forward- makes a significant difference in how easily changes are made. Significant departures from the status quo are impossible when there are too many veto players, with specific ideological distances among them. Agenda setters are those veto players who can say take it or leave it, but they must make proposals to the other veto players that will be acceptable to them. Sources Almond, Gabriel Abraham, and James Smoot Coleman, eds. The Politics of the Developing Areas. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016 (1960). Print.Armingeon, Klaus. Political Institutions. Handbook of Research Methods and Applications in Political Science. Eds. Keman, Hans and Jaap J. Woldendrop. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2016. 234–47. Print.Beck, Thorsten, et al. New Tools in Comparative Political Economy: The Database of Political Institutions. The World Bank Economic Review 15.1 (2001): 165–76. Print.Moe, Terry M. Political Institutions: The Neglected Side of the Story. Journal of Law, Economics, Organization 6 (1990): 213–53. Print.Tsebelis, George. Veto Players: How Political Institutions Work. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002. Print.Weingast, Barry R. The Economic Role of Political Institutions: Market-Preserving Federalism and Economic Development. Journal of Law, Economics, Organization 11.1 (1995): 1–31. Print.

A Definition and Introduction to Ergonomics

A Definition and Introduction to Ergonomics Ergonomics is a term thrown around by health professionals and marketing mavens with a cavalier attitude. For some, it has a very specific meaning. For others, it covers everything under the sun. With all this different verbiage flying at you, you are probably starting to wonder, â€Å"What is Ergonomics?† Definition of Ergonomics Ergonomics derives from two Greek words: ergon, meaning work, and nomoi, meaning natural laws, to create a word that means the science of work and a person’s relationship to that work. The International Ergonomics Association has adopted this technical definition: ​ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance. That is not the most efficient definition of what ergonomics is. Let us keep things simple. Ergonomics is the science of making things comfy. It also makes things efficient. And when you think about it, comfy is just another way of making things efficient. However, for simplicity, ergonomics makes things comfortable and efficient. What Is the Study of Ergonomics? At its simplest definition ergonomics, it  literally means the science of work. So ergonomists, i.e. the practitioners of ergonomics, study work, how work is done and how to work better. It is the attempt to make work better that ergonomics becomes so useful. And that is also where making things comfortable and efficient comes into play. Ergonomics is commonly thought of in terms of products. But it can be equally useful in the design of services or processes. It is used in design in many complex ways. However, what you, or the user, is most concerned with is, â€Å"How can I use the product or service, will it meet my needs, and will I like using it?† Ergonomics helps define how it is used, how it meets your needs, and most importantly if you like it. It makes things comfy and efficient. What Is Comfort? Comfort is much more than a soft handle. Comfort is one of the greatest aspects of a design’s effectiveness. Comfort in the human-machine interface and the mental aspects of the product or service is a primary ergonomic design concern. Comfort in the human-machine interface is usually noticed first. Physical comfort in how an item feels is pleasing to the user. If you do not like to touch it, you wont. If you do not touch it, you will not operate it. If you do not operate it, then it is useless.​ The utility of an item is the only true measure of the quality of its design. The job of any designer is to find innovative ways to increase the utility of a product. Physical comfort while using an item increases its utility. Making an item intuitive and comfortable to use will ensure its success in the marketplace.   The mental aspect of comfort in the human-machine interface is found in feedback. You have preconceived notions of certain things. A quality product should feel like it is made out of quality materials. If it is lightweight and flimsy, you will not feel that comfortable using it. The look, feel, use, and durability of a product help you make a mental determination about a product or service. Basically, it lets you evaluate the quality of the item and compare that to the cost. Better ergonomics mean better quality, which means you will be more comfortable with the value of the item. What Is Efficiency? Efficiency is quite simply making something easier to do. Efficiency comes in many forms, however.​ Reducing the strength required makes a process more physically efficient.Reducing the number of steps in a task makes it quicker (i.e. efficient) to complete.Reducing the number of parts makes repairs more efficient.Reducing the amount of training needed, i.e. making it more intuitive, gives you a larger number of people who are qualified to perform the task. Imagine how inefficient trash disposal would be if your teenage child wasnt capable of taking out the garbage. Efficiency can be found almost everywhere. If something is easier to do, you are more likely to do it. If you do it more, then it is more useful. Again, the utility is the only true measure of the quality of a design. And if you willingly do something more often, you have a greater chance of liking it. If you like doing it, you will be more comfortable doing it. So the next time you hear the term ergonomics, you will know what it means to you. And, hopefully, that is a comforting thought.